Romanticism and the Characteristics of Romantic Poetry

Romanticism: Romanticism refers to an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that emerged in 18th-century Western Europe as a reaction to the Industrial Revolution. It was a response against the social and political conventions of the Neoclassical era, as well as a challenge to the scientific understanding of nature. This movement marked a shift from valuing reason to embracing the senses, feelings, and imagination. It also transitioned focus from urban society to rural life, moving from impersonal, public poetry to more subjective expressions, and from scientific concerns to explorations of the mystical and the boundless.

Romanticism arose primarily as a counter-movement to the dominant Neoclassical ideals and is closely linked to the notion of the romantic spirit, which appeals to the inner self. Romantic poetry possesses several defining features:

Connection to Nature: Romantic poets express a deep appreciation for nature, often critiquing urban life. Disillusioned by the artificiality of city living, they seek solace in the natural world, viewing it as a source of wisdom and moral insight.

Imagination's Dominance: Imagination is central to Romantic poetry. Poets embrace their creativity, striving for transcendent experiences through imaginative expression.

Emotional Expression: Romantic poetry is characterized by an outpouring of emotions, prioritizing subjective feelings over rational thought. This spontaneous expression reflects the depths of human experience.

Celebration of Pastoral Life: Many Romantic poets idealize rural life, depicting it as pure and uncorrupted. They celebrate the simplicity of pastoral settings, contrasting them with the complexities of urban existence.

Empathy for Humanity: Romantic poetry focuses on ordinary people, challenging the Neoclassical focus on aristocracy. Poets express a deep concern for the common man, highlighting simplicity and elemental truths.

Emphasis on Individualism: The movement champions individualism, portraying characters with unique qualities and exceptional genius. Ordinary individuals are celebrated as heroic figures, showcasing resilience against life's challenges.

Interest in Childhood: Romantic poets frequently reflect on childhood, longing for the joy and simplicity of their youth.

Themes of Melancholy and Loneliness: Many Romantic poets convey a sense of isolation and sadness, often presenting life through a melancholic lens. 

Exploration of the Supernatural: Romantic poetry delves into the supernatural and mystical, with poets constructing philosophies that transcend the physical world.

Symbolism and Myth: The use of symbolism and myth is prominent, adding layers of meaning to the poetry. For instance, William Blake's works are rich in symbolic significance.

Style and Language: Romantic poetry is characterized by its use of everyday language. Poets prioritize clarity and emotional resonance over the constraints of formal diction.

In Conclusion, Romanticism is a movement that profoundly values emotion and imagination, serving as a reaction against the rigid norms of Neoclassicism.

The Causes Behind Hamlet's Delay in Taking Revenge

The primary focus of "Hamlet" is the protagonist's unusual hesitation in seeking revenge. Rather than attributing this delay to external factors, it seems to stem from a purely psychological struggle. Hamlet is ahead of his time, constantly questioning and justifying truths that others accept without hesitation. His moral scrupulousness and tendency to overanalyze contribute to a complex psyche that inhibits decisive action.

When the ghost discloses the truth about his father’s murder and demands revenge, Hamlet feels burdened by this responsibility, realizing his own inability to fulfill it. This awareness deepens his melancholic state, showcasing his inner turmoil.

While some critics suggest that King Claudius is a cunning figure who safeguards himself against threats, the evidence indicates that Hamlet’s delay is not due to external obstacles. In a pivotal moment, Hamlet finds an opportunity to enact his revenge while Claudius is praying but hesitates, contemplating the implications of sending him to heaven. This reflection reveals the psychological nature of his procrastination:

"Now I do it pat, how he is praying

And now I will do it, and so he goes to heaven."

Critics often label Hamlet as cowardly, suggesting that fear of consequences prevents him from acting. However, this characterization overlooks his capacity for bravery. When the ghost beckons him to follow, he confronts Horatio and Marcellus, asserting his determination:

"Unhand me, gentlemen, by heaven,

I'll make a ghost of him that lets me."

Hamlet's contemplation of suicide further complicates his ability to seek revenge. He is caught in a profound internal conflict, grappling with whether to endure his fate or confront life's adversities. In his famous soliloquy, he ponders the nature of existence and death, considering suicide as an escape from suffering but is ultimately deterred by the fear of what lies beyond death:

"To be or not to be, that is the question:

Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer

The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,

Or to take arms against a sea of troubles

And by opposing end them."

Ultimately, Hamlet’s delay arises from his indecision, fueled by overthinking. The energy that could drive him to action is instead consumed by contemplation. Although there are moments that reignite his desire for revenge, he remains paralyzed by doubt. After learning from the captain about Fortinbras's willingness to risk everything for honor, Hamlet reflects on his own inaction despite having valid reasons to pursue revenge.

Thus, it becomes clear that Hamlet's hesitation is primarily psychological. He never explicitly mentions external factors hindering his vengeance. Instead, he acknowledges his ability to kill Claudius whenever he chooses, yet he is held back by the need to resolve his thoughts before taking such a decisive step, even at the risk of his own life.

The Search for Faith and Stability is a Major Concern in Arnold's Poetry

Matthew Arnold stands out as a significant Victorian poet, notable for his deep religious sentiment compared to his contemporaries. However, unlike Tennyson, he does not effectively reflect the essence of his time in his poetry. Arnold struggles to reconcile the conflicts between materialism and spiritual development, expressing a concern that Victorians might lose sight of God amid the era's material progress. He yearns for stability in their lives.

This quest for faith and stability is vividly portrayed in his poem "Dover Beach." The poem conveys Arnold's melancholy as he observes the retreating waves, which symbolize a decline in spiritual progress. He laments that Victorians are preoccupied with earthly pursuits, neglecting their spiritual growth. He reflects on the diminishing "Sea of Faith," which was once abundant but now is receding, as illustrated in the lines:

"The Sea of Faith
Was once, too, at the full, and round earth's shore
Lay like the folds of a bright girdle furled.
But now I only hear
Its melancholy, long withdrawing roar,
Retreating."

In "The Scholar Gypsy," Arnold further reveals his commitment to religion and his belief that Victorians are fragmented in their aspirations. He describes them as striving without clear purpose, chasing after illusions, while the Scholar Gypsy maintains a singular aim and unwavering hope:

"Thou hast not lived, why should'st thou perish so?
Thou hast one aim, one business, one desire."

Similarly, "Thyrsis" reflects Arnold's longing for faith and stability, mourning the loss of a friend and, symbolically, the spiritual decline of his contemporaries. He suggests that Victorians are pursuing trivial rewards while neglecting the deeper, intangible gifts that cannot be bought with money. The Scholar Gypsy represents the pursuit of a higher light that many lack.

Overall, Arnold's poetry is imbued with a profound sense of melancholy stemming from his earnest desire for faith and stability among the Victorians, setting him apart from his peers.

Wordsworth's "Preface to the Lyrical Ballads" - A Manifesto of the Romantic Movement

Wordsworth's Preface to the Lyrical Ballads holds significant historical importance, serving as a pivotal moment in the evolution of English literary criticism. It acts as a boundary that delineates the end of one era and the commencement of another, representing a clear separation between the late 18th and early 19th centuries. This work signifies a rebellion against the neo-classical poetry prevalent during the Augustan period.

1. In this Preface, Wordsworth challenges the conventional perspective of poetry as mere imitation, instead advocating for a romantic interpretation that sees poetry as a form of self-expression. He argues that poetry should reflect the poet's own emotions and passions rather than simply mimic the external world.

2. The Preface presents a compelling argument for simplicity in both themes and language. Wordsworth’s focus on events and experiences from everyday life aligns with the romantic ideal of valuing the ordinary. He emphasizes the importance of using “materials from common life” and employing the “language really used by men.”

3. Wordsworth highlights the significance of imagination in poetic creation, asserting that it surpasses reason. He believes that ordinary themes can become captivating through the transformative power of imagination, which elevates the commonplace to the extraordinary.

4. He adopts a romantic perspective by describing poetry as the “spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings,” underlining the emotional and imaginative dimensions of poetic work.

5. Departing from the Neo-classical tradition, Wordsworth becomes a pioneering romantic critic who articulates the process of poetic creation. While neo-classical criticism focused primarily on poetic forms, it was left to the romantics to establish a comprehensive theory of poetry, with Wordsworth taking the initial steps in this direction.

6. He also emphasizes the individuality of the poet, aligning with the romantic notion of "liberalism in literature." Wordsworth advocates for the poet's independence and creative freedom.

7. Furthermore, he characterizes the poet as someone with a deeper “enthusiasm” than the average person, a concept that resonates strongly within romantic critical theory.

8. Wordsworth critiques the poetic language of the Pseudo-classics, advocating for stylistic freedom. He argues that there is no fundamental difference between prose and verse, reinforcing his call for linguistic liberty.

9. Additionally, he encourages readers to form their own judgments about his poetry, urging them to rely on their feelings rather than the opinions of others.

In summary, Wordsworth embodies a romantic spirit in his criticism, with his Preface serving as a transitional text in the landscape of literary criticism. It dismantles traditional views while laying the groundwork for new ideas, marking a significant turning point in the field.

The features of the Neo-classical Age and Pope as a Neo-classicist

The term "neo-classicism" comes from the Greek word "neos," meaning "new," and the Latin word "classicus," which refers to ancient Greek or Roman art forms. Neo-classicism represents a return to the classic ideas of elegance, balance, and clarity, reviving the styles of Greek and Roman literature. This period is also called pseudo-classical, Augustan, or the classical school of criticism. The neo-classical age in English literature lasted from 1660 to 1798 and can be divided into three parts: the Restoration period, the Augustan period, and the Age of Johnson. During this time, new forms of writing emerged, such as essays, parodies, satires, fables, letters, and rhymed couplets.

Characteristics of neo-classical literature:

The neo-classical movement began in Europe in the early 1700s during the Age of Enlightenment, focusing on reason and logic over imagination. Here are some main features:

An Age of Reason: This era emphasized logic and reason as the highest forms of thinking. Writers sought order and harmony in their work, often using rational arguments and drawing from past wisdom. Emotional expression was downplayed, and literature followed strict rules.

Literature of the Aristocracy: Neo-classical literature primarily reflected the lives of the wealthy. It focused on coffee houses and social gatherings, ignoring the struggles of ordinary people. Writers portrayed the artificial lifestyles of the upper class.

Imitation of the Ancients: Neo-classical writers looked to ancient Greek and Roman authors like Homer and Virgil for inspiration. Their works prioritized order, logic, and accuracy.

Age of Satire: Satire became a popular genre during this time. Writers criticized the corrupt and superficial lives of the aristocracy, focusing on social and political issues.

Emphasis on Form: This age valued form over content, with a highly stylized and artificial writing approach. Simplicity was often replaced by elaborate language and decoration.

French Influence: French writers like Boileau, Corneille, Molière, and Pascal significantly influenced English literature during this time, encouraging English writers to study the classics more deeply.

Alexander Pope as a neo-classical writer:

Alexander Pope was a leading figure of the neo-classical era and is often seen as a classicist. He is known for his meticulous style and use of wit, often employing heroic couplets and epigrams. Pope's work critiques the frivolous behavior of the aristocracy, particularly in his mock-heroic poem "The Rape of the Lock," where he satirizes the absurdities of high society. Thus, he is recognized as a skilled artist in the classical tradition.

The University Wits and their Impact on English Drama

University Wits

The term "University Wits" refers to a group of playwrights and poets from the late 16th century who were educated at either the University of Oxford or the University of Cambridge. While they weren't known by this name during their time, the term was popularized by critic George Saintsbury. This group played a crucial role in the evolution of English drama, paving the way for later writers, including Shakespeare. 

The University Wits included prominent figures such as:

- George Peele

- Robert Greene

- Thomas Nash

- Thomas Lodge

- Thomas Kyd

- Christopher Marlowe

- John Lyly

Contributions of the University Wits

The contributions of the University Wits significantly advanced English literature during the Elizabethan era.

1. Advancement of English Drama: The Wits were instrumental in elevating English drama, refining the courtly traditions and revitalizing medieval forms. They infused drama with emotional depth and intensity, as seen in Marlowe's works like Doctor Faustus and The Jew of Malta. John Lyly also enhanced the genre with his witty dialogues, moving away from the rigid Roman influences that characterized earlier works.

2. Evolution of Tragedy: The University Wits redefined the concept of tragedy. Instead of focusing solely on kings and nobles, they depicted the downfall of ordinary individuals with grand aspirations. Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus, featuring a scholar rather than a monarch, exemplifies this shift.

3. Emergence of Romantic Comedy: This group was pivotal in the development of romantic comedy in English literature. Peele’s The Arraignment of Paris and Greene's romantic plots showcased imaginative settings, while John Lyly enriched these narratives with romantic elements and charm.

4. Innovation in Historical Drama: The Wits also contributed to the innovation of historical drama. Marlowe’s Edward II and Greene’s History of Alphonsus, King of Aragon set the stage for Shakespeare's later historical works.

5. Plot Construction: The University Wits excelled in plot development, arranging events in a coherent manner that created a cohesive narrative. Thomas Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy stands out as a prime example of this organic storytelling.

6. Characterization: They breathed life into their characters, crafting memorable and complex figures. Marlowe’s Faustus, for instance, is a compelling representation of a tragic hero.

7. Heroic Style: A defining feature of the University Wits was their use of a heroic style, characterized by powerful and elevated language. Marlowe, in particular, made extensive use of blank verse, showcasing his mastery of poetic expression.

In summary, the University Wits significantly influenced the trajectory of English drama, introducing new themes, forms, and stylistic innovations that laid the groundwork for future playwrights.

Are Shakespeare's Tragic Heroes Victims of Fate or Their Own Actions?

William Shakespeare is renowned for his deep exploration of the human psyche, examining various aspects of human nature. He suggests that while fate plays a significant role in shaping lives, individuals also possess the power to influence their own destinies. External circumstances may amplify human suffering, yet it is ultimately an individual’s actions that lead to their downfall. Shakespeare argues that even those of noble birth and education cannot escape the mortal flaws of lust, greed, ambition, and jealousy. These inner struggles often cloud their judgment and contribute to their tragic fates, as seen in his tragic heroes.

In "Hamlet," the protagonist's tragic flaw is his indecision and tendency to procrastinate. Haunted by the ghost of his father, who urges him to seek revenge, Hamlet struggles with hesitance and self-doubt. He is aware of his weakness, even missing a crucial opportunity to kill Claudius due to irrational reasoning. Additionally, his hubris—his belief in his own superiority—further complicates his situation. Hamlet himself laments his fate, recognizing that he is caught in a time of turmoil:

"The time is out of joint; O cursed spirit,

That ever I was born to set it right!"

His fate seems sealed by his inability to act, and he poignantly reflects on the strength of his predicament:

"My fate cries out,

And makes each petty artery in this body

As hardy as the Nemean lion's nerve".

Similarly, "Macbeth" tells the story of a Scottish general whose unchecked ambition leads to his downfall. While the influence of the three witches and Lady Macbeth certainly plays a role, it is Macbeth's own overwhelming desire for power that drives him to commit heinous acts. He recognizes the evil within himself, which becomes evident through his hallucinations. Despite external influences, it is Macbeth who chooses to embrace his darker instincts, effectively shaping his tragic fate:

"That I may pour my spirits in thine ear;

And chastise with the valour of my tongue

All that impedes thee from the golden round,

Which fate and metaphysical aid doth seem

To have thee crown'd withal".

In "King Lear," the titular character embodies arrogance and pride, which cloud his judgment. Lear’s vanity leads him to favor flattery over honesty, resulting in the disowning of his youngest daughter, Cordelia. This fateful decision plunges him into suffering and madness, as he is betrayed by his elder daughters. Eventually, Lear recognizes that his fate is tied to his own choices:

"It is the stars,

The stars above us, govern our conditions."

Shakespeare’s tragedies delve into the complexities of human nature and psychology, illustrating how inherent flaws trap characters in a cycle of misfortune. These tragic heroes, often well-educated and of noble lineage, initially find themselves in dire situations due to external factors, but it is their own shortcomings that ensnare them in tragedy.

In "Othello," the themes of love, jealousy, and betrayal culminate in the downfall of a noble general. Othello’s tragic flaw lies in his vulnerability to jealousy and misplaced trust. His gullibility leads him to doubt those who are loyal to him, like Desdemona and Cassio, while placing his faith in the duplicitous Iago. This tragic flaw ultimately shapes his fate, leading to his own destruction.

Through these narratives, Shakespeare illustrates that his tragic heroes are not merely victims of fate; rather, their inherent flaws and choices are what lead them to their tragic ends.

Marlowe - The true child of Renaissance or Faustus - A Renaissance man

The term "Renaissance" signifies a revival or rebirth of classical art, literature, and thought, marking a profound transformation in human understanding during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. This period not only renewed interest in classical heritage but also revitalized human thought after the medieval era, igniting an insatiable desire for knowledge, wealth, power, adventure, and beauty.

Christopher Marlowe's protagonist, Faustus, epitomizes the Renaissance man. He is courageous, ambitious, and intellectually curious, yet remains unfulfilled despite his extensive knowledge and experience. His longing for ultimate understanding drives him to exclaim, "Yet art thou still but Faustus, and a man." Faustus seeks to transcend human limitations and dominate the universe, turning to necromancy and making a pact with Lucifer for twenty-four years of supernatural power.

In true Machiavellian fashion, Faustus rejects God and challenges religious conventions, revealing his materialistic ambitions and thirst for enlightenment:

"O, what a world of profit and delight,

Of power, of honour, of omnipotence,

Is promised to the studious artisan!

All things that move between the quiet poles

Shall be at my command."

Like a genuine Renaissance figure, Faustus embarks on journeys to distant lands with the aid of his servant, Mephistophilis, driven by a quest for cosmic knowledge, as he inquires:

"First, will I question with thee about hell,

Tell me where is the place that men call hell?"

His appreciation for beauty and sensual pleasure further illustrates Renaissance ideals. Faustus desires a beautiful German maid as his companion, declaring:

"For I am wanton and lascivious

And cannot live without a wife."

As his pact nears its end, Faustus yearns for Helen of Troy, declaring his desire to find paradise in her beauty. His admiration for Helen reflects the Renaissance celebration of classical aesthetics:

"Was this the face that launched a thousand ships?

And burnt the topless tower of Ilium?"

Individuality is another hallmark of the Renaissance, and Faustus exemplifies this through his autonomous decision to pursue necromancy. Following the guidance of magicians Valdes and Cornelius, he invokes spirits alone, demonstrating his determination to fulfill his desires at any cost, even sacrificing his soul:

"Faustus gives to thee his soul."

Throughout the play, Faustus's dominant personality underscores his individualism, as he defies his inner doubts and continues his pact with Mephistophilis. His quest for knowledge and autonomy reflects a broader Renaissance spirit that sought to liberate the human mind from the constraints of religious dogma and feudalism. Despite his extensive knowledge, Faustus displays an arrogant pride as he boldly challenges the intellectual limitations imposed by society:

"Philosophy is odious and obscure,

Both law and physic are for petty wits;

Divinity is basest of the three,

Unpleasant, harsh, contemptible and vile;

'Tis magic, magic, that hath ravished me."

Marlowe’s "Doctor Faustus" is rich with classical references, highlighting Faustus's admiration for ancient literature. He frequently invokes figures from the past, as seen in his line:

"Have I not made blind Homer sing to me

Of Alexander's love and Oenon's death?"

In summary, Doctor Faustus embodies the essence of the Renaissance spirit. His insatiable thirst for knowledge and power ultimately leads a once-great scholar to become enslaved by illusions, reflecting the complexities and conflicts of his age.

Dr. Faustus - An Embodiment of the Renaissance Spirit

Christopher Marlowe's "Dr. Faustus" is a quintessential text that embodies the complexities of the Renaissance hero. Faustus, a highly ambitious scholar, is representative of the Renaissance ideal, marked by an insatiable thirst for knowledge and a desire to transcend human limitations. However, his journey also serves as a cautionary tale about the consequences of hubris and the moral dilemmas inherent in the pursuit of power.

1. Ambition and the Pursuit of Knowledge: At the heart of Faustus's character is his relentless ambition. Disillusioned by the limitations of traditional academic disciplines—law, medicine, and theology—Faustus turns to necromancy, seeking to unlock the secrets of the universe. This reflects the Renaissance spirit of inquiry and the belief in human potential to reshape the world. Faustus's desire to gain god-like powers demonstrates the era's fascination with individualism and the quest for self-actualization.

2. Rejection of Traditional Values: Faustus’s rejection of established religious and moral frameworks further marks him as a Renaissance figure. He openly dismisses the constraints imposed by Christianity, believing that his pursuit of knowledge and power justifies his actions. This rebellion against authority is emblematic of the Renaissance's challenge to medieval values and its encouragement of personal freedom. However, Faustus's tragic downfall highlights the potential dangers of this unchecked ambition, serving as a critique of the very ideals he embodies.

3. Tragic Flaw and Consequences: Despite his noble aspirations, Faustus's character is ultimately flawed. His hubris leads him to make a pact with the devil, trading his soul for twenty-four years of magical powers. This choice signifies not only his desperation for greatness but also the ethical and spiritual costs of his ambition. The tragic arc of Faustus—from a respected scholar to a tormented soul—illustrates the Renaissance theme of the tragic hero whose aspirations lead to ruin. In this sense, Faustus is a complex figure: a hero striving for greatness but also a cautionary example of the perils of overreaching.

4. Humanism and Individualism: Marlowe’s depiction of Faustus also reflects key Renaissance ideas of humanism and individualism. Faustus seeks to assert his identity and agency in a world governed by divine laws. His quest for knowledge and power mirrors the humanist belief in the potential of individuals to shape their destinies. Yet, his failure to recognize the limitations of human capability brings into question the very ideals he represents. Faustus becomes a tragic hero not only because of his choices but also due to his inability to reconcile his aspirations with moral responsibility.

5. Legacy and Reflection: In the end, Faustus’s story serves as a poignant reflection on the Renaissance hero's journey. While he embodies the qualities of ambition and the quest for knowledge, his tragic fate underscores the dangers of hubris and the importance of ethical considerations in the pursuit of personal goals. Marlowe’s "Dr. Faustus" remains relevant as it prompts contemporary audiences to ponder the limits of ambition and the moral responsibilities that accompany the quest for power.

Conclusion: In conclusion, Marlowe’s "Dr. Faustus" presents a complex portrait of the Renaissance hero. Faustus's insatiable desire for knowledge and power, coupled with his tragic flaws, encapsulates the era's ideals while also cautioning against the consequences of unchecked ambition. As students explore this text, they are invited to reflect on the balance between aspiration and morality, a theme that resonates deeply across time.

18th NTRCA College Level English Written Exam 2024

18^th NTRCA Written Exam 2024
Position: Lecturer         Sub: English
                  Time: 03 Hours          Full Mark: 100                  

01. Answer any two of the following:                                                                      10x2=20

a) Who were the University wits? Discuss the contribution of the University wits to English Drama.

(b) What is 'Romanticism"? Evaluate the major English romantic poets and their contributions to English romantic poetry.

(c) Discuss E.M. Forster's symbolism with reference to the novel "A Passage to India".

(d) Who are the major writers of the Puritan Age? Discuss "The Paradise Lost" by Milton as an epic.

02. Answer any two of the following:                                                                      10x2=20

(a) What is a romantic comedy? Discuss "As You Like It" as a romantic comedy.

(b) How does Shelley build up the image of the west wind as a destroyer and preserver in "Ode to the West Wind"?

(c)How does Swift portray the negative side of human life in "Gulliver's Travels"?

(d) Comment on Shaw's views on love and war in "Arms and the Man".

03. Write short notes on the following terms (any four):                                       5x4=20

(a) Allegory (b) Satire (c) Fable (d) Ballad (e) Three Unities (f) Mock-epic (g) Elegy 

(h) Parable

04. Identify the figures of speech in the underlined parts of the following quotations and explain their functions:                                                                                      2x5=10

(a) She was trembling like a leaf.

(b) I fall upon the thorns of life! I bleed!

(c) O Judgment! Thou art tied to brutish beasts.

(d) Was this the face that launch'd a thousand ships.

     And burnt the topless towers of Ilium?

(e) She is an open book.

05. Write a summary of the following passage:                                                                10

The coconut tree is very useful. People in the tropics depend on it. They make roofs for their houses from leaves. Fishermen take fibers from the tops of the coconut trees and make them into rope. They make fishing nets and sails for their boats too. But the nut is the most precious part of the tree. Farmers open the nuts and dry them. There goes into is oil in coconuts and they export this to other countries. It soap, toothpaste, ice-cream, paint and machine oil. The shell of the coconut is useful too. People make it into charcoal. There is milk in coconut too. It is good to drink and very pure. Doctors sometimes use this milk for drip feeds during the war, when they could not get pure water and sugar. Doctors use this milk for those patients who could neither eat nor drink.

06. Write a letter to the editor of a newspaper emphasizing the importance of tree plantation in this epoch of climate change.                                                                       10

Or, Write a letter to the editor of a newspaper expressing your concern about the outbreak of Dengue fever in the city.

07. Change the following words as directed and make sentences with the changed words (any five):                                                                                                                 05 

(a) Bath (verb)          (b) Bright (adverb)       (c) Heart (adjective)         (d) Enjoyment(verb)  (e) Choose (noun)    (f) Courage (adjective)  (g) Success (verb)           (h) Dramatic (adverb)

08. Use your own words to complete each of the following sentences. (any five)    1x5=5

(a) Scarcely had he reached the station …………………..

(b) A bad workman-quarrels ……………………………..

(c) They wash their hands and ……………………………

(d) It was five years since we ……………………………..

(e) Had I been you ………………………………………..

(f) It was high time for us …………………………………

(g) The old man walks carefully lest ……………………

(h) The car is too costly …………………………………..

 ---------------------------------------------The End--------------------------------------------

Three Major English Literary Movements - Renaissance, Neo-Classicism and Romanticism

The Renaissance

Renaissance stands for the revival, re-awakening or rebirth of classical art, literature, culture and thought. It also stands for the discovery of man by himself and of the world. This renaissance brought about a tremendous change in every aspect of human life during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. In fact, renaissance is not only the revival of classical heritage but also a revitalization of human mind after a long doze of medieval ages. This renaissance creates indomitable desire of acquiring knowledge, unlimited wealth, power, adventures and beauty.

Romanticism / The Romantic Movement

Romanticism refers to the characteristics of an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that came into being in the 18th century Western Europe and strengthened in reaction to the Industrial uprising. It was a revolt against upper-class social and political norms of the Neo- classical age' and a response against the scientific explanation of nature. Romanticism is a term for a school of literature that saw a swing from faith in reason to faith in the senses, feelings, and imagination; a shift from interest in urban society to an interest in the rural and natural; a shift from public, impersonal poetry to subjective poetry; and from concern with the scientific and mundane to interest in the mystifying and unbounded.

Neo-Classicism/ Neo-Classical Movement/ The Age of Prose and Reason

The word 'neo-classicism' is derived from Greek 'neos' and Latin 'classicus'. Here 'neos' means 'new' and 'classicus' means 'anything related to ancient Greek or Latin principles of the forms of art.' Thus, neoclassicism means the return to classical ideas of sophistication, symmetry and lucidity. It is a rejuvenation of the imitation of Greek and Roman literary norms and forms. The neo-classical age is called variously as pseudo-classical, Augustan or the classical school of criticism. The neo-classical age in English literature heralded from 1660 to 1798.This period can be divided into three distinctive stages namely the Restoration period, the Augustan period and the Age of Johnson. This literary age witnessed the rise of essays, parody, satire, fables, melodrama, letters and rhyming with couplets. This age is considered as the period of illumination and is characterized by the clean and linear style and fine draftsmanship.